News And PoliticsCommunications And EntertainmentSports And FitnessHealth And LifestyleOthersGeneralWorldnewsBusiness And MoneyNigerianewsRelationship And MarriageStories And PoemsArts And EducationScience And TechnologyCelebrityEntertainmentMotivationalsReligion And PrinciplesNewsFood And KitchenHealthPersonal Care And BeautySportsBusinessFamily And HolidaysStoriesIT And Computer ScienceRelationshipsLawLifestyleComedyReligionLifetipsEducationMotivationAgriculturePoliticsAnnouncementUSMLE And MedicalsMoneyEngineeringPoemsSocial SciencesHistoryFoodGive AidBeautyMarriageQuestions And AnswersHobbies And HandiworksVehicles And MobilityTechnologyFamilyPrinciplesNatureQuotesFashionAdvertisementChildrenKitchenGive HelpArtsWomenSpiritualityQuestions AnsweredAnimalsHerbal MedicineSciencePersonal CareFitnessTravelSecurityOpinionMedicineHome RemedyMenReviewsHobbiesGiveawayHolidaysUsmleVehiclesHandiworksHalloweenQ&A
Engineering
Shaibudaniel03
profile/18431622147602692315.jpg.webp
Shaibudaniel03
Documentary About Engineering
~11.7 mins read
Explore
Fall Bridge: A Panoply of Perspectives
SEPTEMBER 22, 2014 VOLUME 44 ISSUE 3
The Importance of Engineering: Education, Employment, and Innovation
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 22, 2014
AUTHOR: MARIE C. THURSBY
Technological innovation has long been the key to US growth and prosperity, and engineering has been an important driver of this innovation. Indeed, the development and institutionalization of the engineering disciplines in US universities provided much of the talent behind US domination of world markets during the 20th century (Rosenberg and Nelson 1994). Engineering disciplines integrate scientific principles with practically oriented research, providing systems and processes that themselves create ways of acquiring new knowledge. This integration makes engineering critical to successful industrial innovation.
It is therefore sobering to see the low percentage of engineering degrees awarded in US universities today: only 4.4 percent of the undergraduate degrees awarded in the United States are in engineering, compared with 13 percent in European countries and 23 percent in key Asian countries (NAE 2014). Furthermore, with ever increasing economic development and growth worldwide, it is not clear that the best engineers will want to work in the United States—or that the best employment opportunities for US-educated engineers will be in this country.
Survey evidence from a large sample of R&D-intensive companies headquartered primarily in the United States and Europe shows that firms do not feel constrained to locate new research facilities at home (Thursby and Thursby 2006a). Only 15 percent of those surveyed located all of their R&D at home, and 20 percent conducted more than half of their R&D outside of their home country. Many of them located facilities in developing countries, and the second most important reason for companies’ choice of location was access to quality research personnel (Thursby and Thursby 2006a,b).1
Against this backdrop, it is difficult to evaluate the low percentage of engineering degrees being awarded in the United States. Are too few engineering degrees being sought and awarded? The figures cited above compare degrees across countries, but what are the trends in the United States? What are the occupations and employment opportunities for US-trained engineers?
This article presents evidence that, despite the low number of degrees awarded, the US production of engineers at both undergraduate and graduate levels has increased quite dramatically over time.
Engineering Degrees Awarded in the United States
The number of engineering degrees awarded in the United States has increased at all levels since 2003. As shown in Figure 1, the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded increased by 40 percent between 2003 and 2012, with 88,176 degrees awarded in the latter year. Master’s degrees increased over the same period by 24 percent. In terms of percentage growth, the increase in doctoral degrees awarded was the most dramatic: 71 percent.
Figure 1
The number of doctoral degrees awarded is particularly salient in terms of engineering’s role in innovation: engineering PhDs are among the highest ranked in terms of both average number of patent applications and patents granted in 2003–2008 (NSB 2014). Among doctorate-level engineers in the workforce, 84 percent reported in 2010 that their primary job responsibility was basic research, applied research, design, or development.
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the production of PhDs in nine science and engineering fields over the past 90 years. Two messages are clear. First, science and engineering PhD production has increased fairly steadily since 1945. Not coincidentally, this was the year of Vannevar Bush’s report Science: The Endless Frontier, which pushed for federal government support both for basic science research and for doctoral students to build the scientific workforce (Stephan 2012). Second, the increase in engineering PhD degrees awarded is remarkable, outpacing all other fields except the life sciences.
Figure 3
Since the early 1990s, however, there has been growing concern over an apparent oversupply of PhDs. Figures 3 and 4 show the percentage of PhDs who graduate with definite employment or postdoctoral commitments for the period 1992–2012. As shown in Figure 3, none of the science and engineering fields had more than 77 percent definite commitments of employment. Moreover, a significant portion of these commitments are for short-term postdoctoral training fellowships rather than industrial or academic tenure track positions (Figure 4). In 2012 two-thirds of the commitments in the life sciences were postdoctoral positions, followed closely by the physical sciences. The picture was a little less bleak for engineering—35 percent in 2012. These trends are troubling because postdoctoral positions are temporary and typically pay less than tenure track academic or industry positions.
Figure 4
Projected Job Opportunities: Beyond Engineering Occupations
Looking forward, projected employment in engineering occupations is not as optimistic as for other science fields or nonscience and engineering fields. Figure 5 shows that the projected increase in engineering employment (for all degree levels) between 2010 and 2020 is less than that for other science and engineering fields.
Figure 5
But to assess the importance of engineering, it is necessary to look beyond engineering occupations. Consider, for example, the ultimate management position, that of a CEO. Many CEOs have engineering backgrounds. As one executive put it, “engineering gives you the mindset of solving problems,†as well as the technical skills to evaluate many types of data and situations. This example is not rare. In fact, the majority of people whose highest degree is in science or engineering work in jobs outside of their degree field.
Figure 6
Figure 6 shows that of the 12.6 million people whose highest degree was in a science or engineering field, only 3.9 million worked in science and engineering jobs in 2008. Of the 11.2 million people whose job required bachelor’s-level technical skills, only 27 percent actually worked in science and engineering occupations and 40 percent either worked outside of science and engineering or their highest degree was outside of science and engineering. Common examples of the latter are managers or lawyers with MBAs or JDs whose undergraduate degree was in engineering. Note, however, that 7.9 million of those whose job requires bachelor’s-level technical skills work in areas closely related to their field.
Educational Challenge
The employment pattern shown in Figure 6 is not idiosyncratic but rather reflects general trends since the 1990s. This is good news because it suggests that engineers contribute well beyond their technical skills. But it also means that US universities face a major challenge: the need to design curricula to attract and prepare students for the current and future workplace, where the need for multidisciplinary skills is increasingly the norm.
The multinational firm survey mentioned above provides compelling evidence that engineers working in R&D-intensive firms will likely work on globally distributed teams (Thursby and Thursby 2006a,b), and data on the role of teams in innovation show that research teams are becoming ever larger and cross-institutional in nature (Wuchty et al. 2007). Thus engineers managing or working in R&D will need to work across many organizational structures.
The challenge for universities is to design programs that retain the rigor of engineering while broadening the curriculum to address communication across cultures, management within and across organizations, intellectual property and technology transfer issues, financing innovation, knowledge of regulatory environments, and so on.
Many US universities have stepped up to the challenge. At the undergraduate level, some have created “four plus one†programs that introduce cross-disciplinary courses or certificate programs in the fifth year. Others have introduced minors in entrepreneurship or management of technology, and a number of joint degree programs combine engineering with law and/or business. In addition, a number of universities are partnering to meet the challenge. For example, a graduate certificate program at Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University teams PhD candidates in science and engineering with business and law students to focus on issues involved in commercializing fundamental research.
Concluding Remarks
This article began by recalling the heart of the engineering disciplines—the integration of ideas and techniques that make engineering so essential for industrial innovation. It is fitting, then, to end on a similar note. Engineering holds great potential for continued US innovation in the future. But to realize this potential, it will be necessary for US universities to extend the “integrative†expertise of engineers into areas well beyond the technical core.
References
NAE [National Academy of Engineering]. 2014. The Importance of Engineering Talent to the Prosperity and Security of the Nation: Summary of a Forum. Washington: National Academies Press.
NSB [National Science Board]. 2012. Science and Engineering Indicators. Washington.
NSB. 2014. Science and Engineering Indicators. Washington.
NSF [National Science Foundation]. 2012. Doctorate Recipients from US Universities: 2011. Special Report NSF 13-301. Arlington, VA. Available at www.nsf.gov/statistics/sed/digest/2011/nsf13301.pdf.
NSF. 2014. Doctorate Recipients from US Universities: 2012. Special Report NSF 14-305. Arlington, VA. Available at www.nsf.gov/statistics/sed/2012/start.cfm.
Rosenberg N, Nelson R. 1994. American universities and technical advance in industry. Research Policy 23:323–348.
Stephan P. 2012. How Economics Shapes Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Stephan P. (forthcoming). The endless frontier: Reaping what Bush sowed? Version of July 18, 2014. In: The Changing Frontier: Rethinking Science and Innovation Policy, eds. Jaffe A, Jones B. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Available atwww.nber.org/chapters/c13034.pdf.
Thursby J, Thursby M. 2006a. Here or there? A survey on the factors in multinational R&D location. Report to the National Research Council Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable. Washington: National Academies Press.
Thursby J, Thursby M. 2006b. Where is the new science in corporate R&D? Science 314:1547–1548.
Wuchty S, Jones B, Uzzi B. 2007. The increasing dominance of teams in the production of knowledge. Science 316:1036–1039.
Yoder B. 2013. Engineering by the Numbers. Washington: American Society of Engineering Education. Available at www.asee.org/papers-and-publications/publications/11-47. pdf.
FOOTNOTES
This article extends the comments and perspective presented by the author for the panel on “The Importance of Engineering for the Prosperity and Security of the United States,†at the 2013 annual meeting of the National Academy of Engineering. Where possible the data have been updated. The author is grateful to Paula Stephan and Jerry Thursby for insightful discussions, and to Stephan for providing data she compiled from doctoral surveys.
1 The most important reason for locating in a developing country was growth potential of the market.
National Academy of Engineering
500 Fifth Street, NW | Washington, DC 20001 | T. 202.334.3200 | F. 202.334.2290
Darphiz
profile/6945IMG_20200826_193849.jpg
Darphiz
Stop Wasting Your Money At The Mechanic Workshop, Learn These Easy Tips To Fix Your Car On Your Own
~5.0 mins read
Stop wasting your money at the mechanic workshop, learn these easy tips to fix your car on your own.
When you lack the skills to do some things yourself, you might end up spending more on a repair. It amusing that when some people calculate the amount they spend at their mechanic workshop it's enough to get a new and comfortable ride.
When you acquire basic knowledge of car maintenance, it doesn't save you money only but also increases the life span of your vehicle.
Without much Ado or delay, I will be sharing some common car problems and how you can solve them on your own.
Car not starting
The pain you get when you start your car early in the morning and it's start making some funny sounds is immeasurable! , this causes a lot of confusion as you probably don't know what wrong.
However, if you run into such a problem another day try;
#1 Check the car battery
Sometimes we forget to turn off some electronics component of our car before going to bed. This leads to power drainage.
Check the battery connector, is it tightened well?
Also, if you've been using the battery for up to 5 years, then it's time to replace it with a new one.
How do I know the issue is coming from the battery?
Observe the interior lights of your vehicle and the sound it makes when you start it. If there's no interior light or the sound is sluggish then the problem is from the battery.
Perhaps the battery connector is corroded or partially connected. Battery connectors are not expensive (#250 depending on your location).
Faulty alternators also cause the battery not to function properly. The work of the alternator is to charge your battery while driving. Once it is bad then your battery is at risk âš ï¸
How to detect a faulty alternator
Try jump-starting the car or start it with another battery. While the engine is running, unplug the battery, if the car stops then the alternator is faulty.
Another way is by using your car radio. After you are able to start the car (via jump-start or another battery) turn your AM radio to a station that has low music or sound then step on your accelerator, if you hear a fuzzing sound as you step on the pedal then the alternator is faulty.
Problems concerning alternators require technical know-how, you should contact your mechanic to repair that.
How to start your car when the alternator or battery is faulty
#Detaching the Radiator fan
This method works well for Toyotas, and if the battery still has some power in it. First, switch off every electrical component of the car which include your wiper, light, radio and pointers. Then check around your radiator fan and detach the plug, this helps in power conservation.
Lift the clip before pulling the male and female plug apart. You can use your screwdriver if you are finding it hard.
After this, start your car, it should come up. If not, then the battery is very weak.
Warning âš ï¸: connect the radiator fan back once the car starts to prevent overheating.
#Push start
If you drive a manual car, another method is to push-start it. Step on the clutch and put the gear in the second or first. Make sure lights, radios, and wipers are off, and the key is in the start position. Get someone to push the car very fast, then remove your leg from the clutch, the car should start.
Cleaning corroded terminals with Cola
Corrosion can prevent your car from starting. First, remove each terminal slightly with your spanner. Then pour some cola on it from the centre.
Allow it to soak for some minutes, then clean it completely with water.
You can also use sandpaper to get rid of corrosion.
To prevent the battery from corrosion, rub some petroleum jelly on it.
Other things that prevent the car from starting include
#2. Failed Starter
#3. Bad ignition switch
#4. Fuel system issue
Car jerking or not running properly
There are lots of reason car jerks. I will discuss the one's you can repair on your own
#1. Faulty Plugs
This one of the easiest problem to identify and fix. One way to know if your spark plugs are faulty is to check whether it is soaked with fuel.
Run your car for some minutes, stop the engine, lose the plug and check the tip. If the tip is soaked, then the plug is not firing.
Try to replace the plug with a new one.
Another method is to listen to the sound of the engine. While your engine is running, remove the plug connection wire, if the sound of the car does not change then the plug is faulty.
#2 Dirty Air Filters
When the air filter is dirty, you get the same issue as the insufficient fuel. Check the air filter and clean it.
Others include;
#3 Worn out accelerator/throttle cables.
#4 Bad transmission Module.
#5 Bad fuel pump or filter.
However, you should get those fixed by your mechanic.
Was this helpful? Please like and comment.
Ndoma
profile/3696FB_IMG_166154600052001842.jpg
Ndoma
Nigerian Governor Prepares To Vacate Office, Moves Out Of Government House
~0.9 mins read
The Rivers state governor, Nyesom Wike, has disclosed that he has moved out of the government house in preparation to vacate office when his tenure ends in 2023.
According to The Nation, Wike told his audience at a child dedication ceremony in Abuja, that he knows some political forces will come after him when he leaves office.
Wike said he is not afraid of being persecuted when he no longer enjoys immunity as governor. Photo: @GovWike
He said he is ready to face such travails when he steps down as governor.
The governor stated that Senator Okorocha and his family were currently undergoing political persecution.
He advised the senator to be steadfast because he will come out of it stronger, The Sun reported.
Advertisement
Loading...